What Is The Size Of The Senate And How Many Senators Does Each State Get In Congress?

Upper business firm of the United States Congress

Coordinates: 38°53′26″Due north 77°0′32″W  /  38.89056°Northward 77.00889°W  / 38.89056; -77.00889

United States Senate
117th United States Congress
Seal of the U.Southward. Senate
Flag of the U.Southward. Senate
Type
Blazon	Upper house of the Us Congress
Term limits	None
History
New session started	January 3, 2021 (2021-01-03)
Leadership
President of the Senate	Kamala Harris (D) since January 20, 2021
President pro tempore	Patrick Leahy (D) since Jan 20, 2021
Bulk Leader	Chuck Schumer (D) since January 20, 2021
Minority Leader	Mitch McConnell (R) since January xx, 2021
Majority Whip	Dick Durbin (D) since Jan 20, 2021
Minority Whip	John Thune (R) since Jan 20, 2021
Construction
Seats	100 51 (or 50 plus the Vice President) for a majority
Political groups	Majority (50) [a] Democratic (48) Contained (ii) [b] Minority (fifty) Republican (l)
Length of term	half-dozen years
Elections
Voting system	Plurality voting in 46 states[c] Varies in 4 states GA and MS: Two-round system AK and ME: Ranked-selection voting
Last election	November 3, 2020[d] (35 seats)
Next election	November viii, 2022 (35 seats)
Meeting place
Senate Bedroom United States Capitol Washington, D.C. United states of america
Website
senate.gov
Constitution
Us Constitution
Rules
Standing Rules of the Usa Senate

The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower chamber. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the U.s.a..

The composition and powers of the Senate are established past Article One of the United States Constitution.^[2] The Senate is equanimous of senators, each of whom represents a unmarried state in its entirety. Each land is as represented by ii senators who serve staggered terms of six years. There are currently 100 senators representing the l states. The vice president of the Us serves as presiding officer and president of the Senate by virtue of that role, and has a vote only if the senators are every bit divided. In the vice president's absence, the president pro tempore, who is traditionally the senior member of the party belongings a majority of seats, presides over the Senate.

As the upper sleeping accommodation of Congress, the Senate has several powers of advice and consent which are unique to it. These include the blessing of treaties, and the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries, federal judges (including Federal Supreme Court justices), flag officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, other federal executive officials and federal uniformed officers. If no candidate receives a majority of electors for vice president, the duty falls to the Senate to elect 1 of the acme two recipients of electors for that office. The Senate conducts trials of those impeached by the House.

The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative^[3] and more prestigious^{[4] [5] [6]} body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere.^[7]

From 1789 to 1913, senators were appointed past legislatures of usa they represented. They are now elected past popular vote following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. In the early 1920s, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their flooring leaders began. The Senate's legislative and executive business is managed and scheduled past the Senate majority leader.

The Senate chamber is located in the north wing of the Capitol Edifice in Washington, D.C.

History

The drafters of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly stand for the people, as the Business firm of Commons did in Nifty Great britain. This thought of having ane sleeping room represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could human activity as an internal bank check on each other. One was intended to be a "People's Business firm" directly elected by the people, and with brusque terms obliging the representatives to remain shut to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent equally they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.^[8]

First convened in 1789, the Senate of the U.s. was formed on the case of the ancient Roman Senate. The name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders (from senex pregnant old man in Latin).^[9]

James Madison fabricated the following annotate well-nigh the Senate:

In England, at this twenty-four hour period, if elections were open to all classes of people, the belongings of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrestal law would soon take place. If these observations remain just, our regime ought to secure the permanent interests of the country confronting innovation. Landholders ought to accept a share in the authorities, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be then constituted every bit to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to exist this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.^[10]

—Notes of the Hugger-mugger Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787

Commodity Five of the Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a land of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that country's consent. The District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation or allowed to vote in either house of Congress. They have official non-voting delegates in the House of Representatives, merely none in the Senate. The District of Columbia and Puerto Rico each additionally elect two "shadow senators", but they are officials of their respective local governments and non members of the U.S. Senate.^[xi] The United States has had l states since 1959,^[12] thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.^[8]

Graph showing historical party command of the U.S. Senate, Firm and Presidency since 1855^[13]

The disparity between the most and least populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each state ii members of the Senate and at least 1 member of the House of Representatives, for a total minimum of 3 presidential electors, regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Isle, whereas today California has roughly lxx times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2020 censuses. Before the adoption of the Seventeenth Subpoena in 1913, senators were elected by the individual country legislatures.^[14] Problems with repeated vacant seats due to the disability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, bribery and intimidation gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators.^[15]

Current composition and election results

Members of the United states Senate for the 117th Congress

Current party standings

The party limerick of the Senate during the 117th Congress:

Amalgamation		Members
	Republican	50
	Autonomous	48
	Independents	2[b]
Total		100

Membership

Qualifications

Article I, Section three, of the Constitution, sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must be at least thirty years old; (ii) they must have been citizens of the United states for at to the lowest degree nine years; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their election. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this system by arguing that the "senatorial trust" called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character":

A senator must be thirty years of age at to the lowest degree; as a representative must exist 20-5. And the former must have been a citizen nine years; every bit vii years are required for the latter. The propriety of these distinctions is explained by the nature of the senatorial trust, which, requiring greater extent of information and stability of character, requires at the same fourth dimension that the senator should have reached a catamenia of life about likely to supply these advantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions with foreign nations, ought to be exercised by none who are non thoroughly weaned from the prepossessions and habits incident to strange nativity and education. The term of nine years appears to be a prudent mediocrity betwixt a total exclusion of adopted citizens, whose claim and talents may claim a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and hasty admission of them, which might create a channel for strange influence on the national councils.^[16]

The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole gauge of a senator's qualifications. During its early on years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. Every bit a result, four senators who failed to see the age requirement were yet admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), John Jordan Crittenden (aged 29 in 1817), Armistead Thomson Mason (anile 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (anile 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, yet, has not been repeated since.^[17] In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned xxx (on the next June 19) to have the adjuration of role. In November 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, but he reached his 30th birthday before the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.

The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution disqualifies every bit senators any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite adjuration to support the Constitution but who later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United states of america. This provision, which came into force soon afterwards the end of the Ceremonious War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Subpoena, however, also provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.

Elections and term

Originally, senators were selected by the land legislatures, not by popular elections. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of every bit many as 29 states had provided for popular ballot of senators by referendums.^[fifteen] Popular ballot to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment.

Term

Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-third of the seats are upwardly for election every 2 years. This was achieved by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of one-third expired after two years, the terms of some other tertiary expired afterwards iv, and the terms of the last third expired later on six years. This arrangement was also followed after the admission of new states into the marriage. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given land are non contested in the same general election, except when a vacancy is being filled. Electric current senators whose 6-twelvemonth terms are fix to expire on January 3, 2023, belong to Grade III. There is no constitutional limit to the number of terms a senator may serve.

The Constitution set the engagement for Congress to convene — Article 1, Department 4, Clause 2, originally set that engagement for the third day of December. The Twentieth Amendment, notwithstanding, changed the opening appointment for sessions to apex on the third twenty-four hours of January, unless they shall by police engage a dissimilar day. The Twentieth Amendment as well states that the Congress shall gather at to the lowest degree one time every year, and allows the Congress to determine its convening and banishment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article 1, Section 3, provides that the president has the ability to convene Congress on boggling occasions at his discretion.^[18]

A fellow member who has been elected, simply not yet seated, is chosen a senator-elect; a member who has been appointed to a seat, only not yet seated, is called a senator-designate.

Elections

Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday after the kickoff Monday in November in even-numbered years, Election Day, and coincide with elections for the House of Representatives.^[xix] Senators are elected by their land as a whole. The Elections Clause of the United States Constitution grants each country (and Congress, if information technology so desires to implement a uniform law) the power to legislate a method by which senators are elected. Ballot access rules for independent and small political party candidates also vary from state to state.

In 45 states, a primary election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties (and a select few 3rd parties, depending on the state) with the full general election following a few months subsequently. In almost of these states, the nominee may receive only a plurality, while in some states, a runoff is required if no bulk was achieved. In the general election, the winner is the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote.

However, in five states, dissimilar methods are used. In Georgia, a runoff between the top two candidates occurs if the plurality winner in the full general ballot does non too win a majority. In California, Washington, and Louisiana, a nonpartisan coating primary (also known as a "jungle chief" or "top-two chief") is held in which all candidates participate in a single primary regardless of party affiliation and the peak two candidates in terms of votes received at the main election accelerate to the general ballot, where the winner is the candidate with the greater number of votes. In Louisiana, the blanket primary is considered the general election and candidates receiving a bulk of the votes is declared the winner, skipping a run-off. In Maine and Alaska, ranked-selection voting is used to nominate and elect candidates for federal offices, including the Senate.^[20]

Vacancies

The Seventeenth Amendment requires that vacancies in the Senate be filled by special election. Whenever a senator must be appointed or elected, the secretarial assistant of the Senate mails one of three forms to the country's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator.^[21] If a special election for i seat happens to coincide with a general election for the land's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes function every bit soon as possible later on the election and serves until the original six-year term expires (i.e. not for a full-term).

The Seventeenth Subpoena permits state legislatures to empower their governors to make temporary appointments until the required special election takes place.

The manner past which the Seventeenth Amendment is enacted varies among the states. A 2018 report breaks this downwards into the following three broad categories (specific procedures vary amidst the states):^[22]

• V states – North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin – do not empower their governors to brand temporary appointments, relying exclusively on the required special election provision in the Seventeenth Amendment.^{[22] : 7–eight}
• Nine states – Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Texas, Vermont, and Washington – provide for gubernatorial appointments, but also require a special ballot on an accelerated schedule.^{[22] : x–11}
• The remaining thirty-six states provide for gubernatorial appointments, "with the appointed senator serving the balance of the term or until the next statewide general ballot".^{[22] : 8–9}

In six states within the final category higher up – Arizona, Hawaii, Maryland, Due north Carolina, Utah, and Wyoming – the governor must appoint someone of the same political political party as the previous incumbent.^{[22] : nine}

In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its constabulary to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the tardily senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in January 2010.^{[23] [24]}

In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a carve up ballot plebiscite that took upshot on the same day, only that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot-approved law is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator.^[25] Because the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that say-so to the legislature – not the people or the state more often than not – it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature'south statute granting that authorization.^[25] As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an acting senator to serve until a special ballot is held to fill the vacancy.

Oath

The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution.^[26] Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators:

I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United states of america against all enemies, strange and domestic; that I will deport true organized religion and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am near to enter. So help me God.^[27]

Bacon and benefits

The almanac salary of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000;^[28] the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400.^{[28] [29]} In June 2003, at to the lowest degree 40 senators were millionaires;^[30] in 2018, over l senators were millionaires.^[31]

Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested after five years of service.^[29] Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement Organization (FERS) or Civil Service Retirement Organisation (CSRS). FERS has been the Senate's retirement system since January one, 1987, while CSRS applies only for those senators who were in the Senate from December 31, 1986, and prior. As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.iii% of their bacon into the FERS retirement programme and pay half-dozen.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. The corporeality of a senator'south pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest iii years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed eighty% of their last salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.^[29]

Seniority

Seniority is a factor in the pick of physical offices and in political party caucuses' assignment of committees.^[32]

Expulsion and other disciplinary actions

The Senate may miscarry a senator by a two-thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate's history: William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings – for instance, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires merely a simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-ballot races rather than face up certain censure or expulsion, such every bit Robert Torricelli in 2002.

Majority and minority parties

The "majority party" is the political party that either has a majority of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more than parties are tied, the vice president's affiliation determines which party is the majority party. The next-largest party is known equally the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are mostly from the majority political party; they have counterparts (for example, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (so long as they do not conclave support either of the larger parties) are non considered in determining which is the bulk political party.

Seating

At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a belvedere from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. One hundred desks are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular blueprint and are divided by a wide fundamental aisle. The Democratic Political party traditionally sits to the presiding officeholder'south right, and the Republican Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's left, regardless of which party has a bulk of seats.^[33]

Each senator chooses a desk-bound based on seniority inside the party. By custom, the leader of each political party sits in the front row forth the center alley. Forty-eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington. Farther desks of like pattern were added as new states entered the Union.^[34] Information technology is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their name on the inside of the desk's drawer.^[35]

Officers

Except for the president of the Senate (who is the vice president), the Senate elects its own officers,^[ii] who maintain order and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business concern of the Senate, and interpret the Senate's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various 24-hour interval-to-mean solar day functions of the Senate.

Presiding officer

Nether the Constitution, the vice president serves every bit president of the Senate. They may vote in the Senate (ex officio, for they are not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a tie, but are non required to.^[36] For much of the nation'south history the task of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the vice president's primary duties (the other beingness to receive from u.s.a. the tally of electoral ballots bandage for president and vice president and to open the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives", so that the total votes could exist counted). Since the 1950s, vice presidents take presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the event of significant legislation or nomination, or when a necktie vote on an of import issue is anticipated.

The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a time"), who presides over the bedroom in the vice president's absence and is, by custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service.^[37] Similar the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a majority-political party senator who presides over the Senate, ordinarily in blocks of one hour on a rotating basis. Oftentimes, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside then that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are usually mere mouthpieces for the Senate's parliamentarian, who whispers what they should do".^[38]

The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the speaker of the House. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (past the rules of the Senate, the start senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of order (objections past senators that a rule has been breached, field of study to entreatment to the whole sleeping accommodation); and announcing the results of votes.

Party leaders

Each political party elects Senate party leaders. Floor leaders deed as the party chief spokesmen. The Senate majority leader is responsible for decision-making the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each political party elects an assistant leader (whip), who works to ensure that his political party's senators vote as the party leadership desires.

Non-fellow member officers

In improver to the vice president, the Senate has several officers who are non members. The Senate'south principal authoritative officeholder is the secretary of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of jotter and supplies, and oversees clerks. The assistant secretarial assistant of the Senate aids the secretary's piece of work. Another official is the sergeant at artillery who, as the Senate'southward principal law enforcement officer, maintains gild and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Law handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for full general oversight. Other employees include the clergyman, who is elected by the Senate, and pages, who are appointed.

Procedure

Daily sessions

The Senate uses Standing Rules for operation. Like the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At 1 end of the sleeping room of the Senate is a belvedere from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast alive on tv set, commonly by C-Bridge ii.

Senate procedure depends non but on the rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand past party leaders. A senator may block such an understanding, just in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officeholder sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain order.

A "hold" is placed when the leader'southward office is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or laissez passer a measure. A hold may be placed for any reason and can be lifted by a senator at any time. A senator may place a concur simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill the bill. A bill tin can be held for equally long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration.

Holds tin exist overcome, but require time-consuming procedures such every bit filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications betwixt a senator and the leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds". A senator may disclose the placement of a concord.

The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to practise concern. Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is e'er causeless present unless a quorum telephone call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call past "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are nowadays. In do, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are more often than not used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually, such delays are used while waiting for a senator to achieve the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. In one case the demand for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.

Debate

Contend, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed past internal rules adopted past the Senate. During a debate, senators may only speak if called upon past the presiding officer, but the presiding officer is required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officer has piddling control over the form of the debate. Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates even if some other senator rises beginning. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed every bit "Mr. President" or "Madam President", and not to some other member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In nearly cases, senators do not refer to each other by proper name, but by country or position, using forms such equally "the senior senator from Virginia", "the admirer from California", or "my distinguished friend the chairman of the Judiciary Committee". Senators address the Senate continuing next to their desks.^[39]

Autonomously from rules governing civility, in that location are few restrictions on the content of speeches; at that place is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter before the Senate.

The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may make more than than ii speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, information technology does not necessarily coincide with the agenda day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in well-nigh cases, senators may speak for every bit long equally they please. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute. However, the correct to unlimited contend is by and large preserved.

Within the United states, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world's greatest deliberative body".^{[40] [41] [42]}

Filibuster and cloture

The filibuster is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive serial of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a delay by invoking cloture. In most cases, cloture requires the back up of three-fifths of the Senate; however, if the matter before the Senate involves changing the rules of the body – this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster – a two-thirds majority is required. In electric current practise, the threat of filibuster is more important than its utilise; almost whatsoever motion that does not have the support of 3-fifths of the Senate effectively fails. This ways that 41 senators tin can brand a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked considering bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority, and then a beak that already has bipartisan back up is rarely subject area to threats of filibuster. However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in contempo years.

If the Senate invokes cloture, the debate does not necessarily end immediately; instead, it is express to upwards to 30 additional hours unless increased by another iii-fifths vote. The longest filibuster speech in the Senate'southward history was delivered by Strom Thurmond (D-SC), who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.^[43]

Nether sure circumstances, the Congressional Budget Human activity of 1974 provides for a process called "reconciliation" by which Congress tin can pass bills related to the upkeep without those bills existence subject to a filibuster. This is accomplished past limiting all Senate floor contend to 20 hours.^[44]

Voting

When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by voice vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "Yea/Yeah" (in favor of the motion) or "Nay" (confronting the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A senator, withal, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may be granted merely if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present. In exercise, however, senators 2d requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their name is chosen. Senators who were not in the sleeping room when their proper noun was chosen may still cast a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, simply must remain open for a minimum of 15 minutes. A bulk of those voting determines whether the motion carries.^[45] If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a tie-breaking vote. If the vice president is not nowadays, the motion fails.^[46]

Filibustered bills crave a 3-fifths majority to overcome the cloture vote (which usually means 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) approves the beak. This has acquired some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to corroborate a beak, with for example Us Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58–39 in favor of the provision establishing concealed carry allow reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws. That fell two votes brusque of the threescore needed to approve the mensurate".^[45]

Closed session

On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a hole-and-corner or closed session. During a airtight session, the bedroom doors are closed, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or non essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and usually held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive bailiwick matter such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may call for and forcefulness a airtight session if the motion is seconded by at least one other member, merely an agreement usually occurs beforehand.^[47] If the Senate does not approve the release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national athenaeum. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy.^[48] In 1973, the Firm adopted a rule that all committee sessions should be open unless a bulk on the committee voted for a closed session.

Calendars

The Senate maintains a Senate Agenda and an Executive Calendar.^[49] The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor deportment. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out past Senate committee(s) and awaiting Senate floor activeness. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.

Committees

The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a multifariousness of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In practice, however, the option of members is made past the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength.

Almost committee work is performed by 16 standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as finance or foreign relations. Each standing committee may consider, amend, and report bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Committee considers nominees for positions in the Department of State.) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees take the power to concord hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.

The Senate besides has several committees that are not considered standing committees. Such bodies are by and large known every bit select or special committees; examples include the Select Committee on Ideals and the Special Committee on Aging. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative piece of work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ad hoc basis for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Committee was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees finish to exist later on fulfilling their tasks.

The Congress includes articulation committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some articulation committees oversee independent government bodies; for example, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other articulation committees serve to brand informational reports; for instance, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the ability of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.

Each Senate commission and subcommittee is led by a chair (usually a member of the majority party). Formerly, committee chairs were determined purely past seniority; as a consequence, several elderly senators continued to serve equally chair despite severe physical infirmity or even senility.^[50] Committee chairs are elected, but, in do, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they control the committee's agenda, and so decide how much, if any, fourth dimension to devote to the consideration of a neb; they act with the ability of the commission in disapproving or delaying a bill or a nomination past the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This terminal role was especially of import in mid-century, when floor amendments were idea non to be collegial. They besides accept considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are probable to accomplish more good for their states than those who practice not. The Senate rules and community were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen accept less ability and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were earlier reform.^[51] The 2d-highest member, the spokesperson on the commission for the minority party, is known in well-nigh cases every bit the ranking member.^[52] In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Committee on Ethics, all the same, the senior minority member is known as the vice-chair.

Criticism

Recent criticisms of the Senate'southward operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence every bit a result of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of arcane rules.^{[53] [54]}

The Senate delay is frequently debated. The Constitution specifies a simple majority threshold to pass legislation, and some critics feel the de facto three-fifths threshold for general legislation prevents beneficial laws from passing. (The nuclear choice was exercised by both parties in the 2010s to eliminate the filibuster for confirmations.) Supporters generally consider the filibuster to be an of import protection for the minority views and a check against the unfettered single-party rule when the same party holds the Presidency and a majority in both the House and Senate.

Though this was an intentional part of the Connecticut Compromise, critics accept described the fact that representation in the Senate is not proportional to the population as "anti-democratic" and "minority rule".^{[55] [56]} New York Times opinion columnist David Leonhardt points out^[57] that because small states are disproportionately not-Hispanic European American, African Americans have 75% of their proportionate voting power in the Senate, and Hispanic Americans have but 55%. The approximately 4 meg Americans that accept no representation in the Senate (in the District of Columbia and U.S. territories) are heavily African and Hispanic American. Leonhardt and others advocate for admitting Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico as states (both take more residents than the smallest existing states) to reduce this inequity.

Senate function buildings

External video
Senate Building, Washington DC, Hd from 35mm

There are before long iii Senate office buildings located along Constitution Avenue, n of the Capitol. They are the Russell Senate Office Building, the Dirksen Senate Role Building, and the Hart Senate Office Building.

Functions

Legislation

Bills may be introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, the Constitution'due south Origination Clause provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives".^[58] As a issue, the Senate does not accept the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the Business firm of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds.^{[59] [60] [61] [62]} Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations neb, the House simply refuses to consider information technology, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, in which money bills approved by Parliament have originated in the House of Commons per constitutional convention.^[63]

Although the Constitution gave the Business firm the ability to initiate revenue bills, in practice the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. Every bit Woodrow Wilson wrote:

The Senate's right to amend general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper firm may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not simply the amounts but fifty-fifty the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular sleeping room measures of an almost totally new graphic symbol.^[64]

The blessing of both houses is required for any nib, including a revenue neb, to become law. Both Houses must laissez passer the same version of the pecker; if in that location are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or past a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies.

Checks and balances

The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that class its ability to "check and balance" the powers of other elements of the federal government. These include the requirement that the Senate may advise and must consent to some of the president'south government appointments; also the Senate must consent to all treaties with strange governments; it tries all impeachments, and it elects the vice president in the event no person gets a majority of the balloter votes.

The president tin can make certain appointments only with the advice and consent of the Senate. Officials whose appointments require the Senate's approval include members of the Cabinet, heads of about federal executive agencies, ambassadors, justices of the Supreme Court, and other federal judges. Under Commodity II, Department 2, of the Constitution, a big number of authorities appointments are field of study to potential confirmation; however, Congress has passed legislation to qualify the engagement of many officials without the Senate's consent (usually, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the about meaning final decision-making authority). Typically, a nominee is the offset field of study to a hearing before a Senate committee. Thereafter, the nomination is considered past the full Senate. The bulk of nominees are confirmed, but in a pocket-size number of cases each year, Senate committees purposely neglect to human action on a nomination to cake it. In improver, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they appear unlikely to be confirmed. Because of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are infrequent (at that place have been only ix Cabinet nominees rejected outright in United States history).^[65]

The powers of the Senate concerning nominations are, however, subject to some constraints. For instance, the Constitution provides that the president may make an date during a congressional recess without the Senate'due south advice and consent. The recess appointment remains valid only temporarily; the function becomes vacant again at the end of the next congressional session. Still, presidents take frequently used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may refuse the nominee. Furthermore, equally the Supreme Court held in Myers v. United States, although the Senate's advice and consent are required for the appointment of sure executive co-operative officials, it is non necessary for their removal.^{[66] [67]} Recess appointments have faced a significant amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.Due south. Senate passed a legally non-binding resolution against recess appointments.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Senate also has a part in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may merely "make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur" in order to benefit from the Senate'southward advice and consent and give each state an equal vote in the procedure. Withal, not all international agreements are considered treaties under U.S. domestic law, even if they are considered treaties under international law. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude executive agreements without action past the Senate. Similarly, the president may brand congressional-executive agreements with the approval of a elementary bulk in each Firm of Congress, rather than a two-thirds bulk in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional-executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such every bit Laurence Tribe and John Yoo^[68] to suggest that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty-ratification process. However, courts take upheld the validity of such agreements.^[69]

The Constitution empowers the Business firm of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors" and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting president of the U.s. is beingness tried, the chief justice of the United States presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit on oath or affidavit. Conviction requires a ii-thirds majority of the senators present. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant exist banned from belongings office. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; nevertheless, the party may face up criminal penalties in a normal court of constabulary.

The House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were bedevilled (one resigned before the Senate could complete the trial).^[70] Only iii presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton and both Trump trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson'southward case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction.

Nether the Twelfth Amendment, the Senate has the power to elect the vice president if no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral Higher. The Twelfth Subpoena requires the Senate to choose from the 2 candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral Higher deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only cleaved a deadlock once; in 1837, information technology elected Richard Mentor Johnson. The Business firm elects the president if the Electoral College deadlocks on that option.

See also

• Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate
• Elections in the United States
• List of African-American U.s.a. senators
• The states presidents and control of Congress
• Women in the United States Senate

Notes

1. ^ Democrats are in the bulk due to the tiebreaking ability of Democratic Vice President Kamala Harris, who serves ex officio equally the president of the Senate.
2. ^ ^{a b} The contained senators, Angus King of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont, caucus with the Democrats.^[1]
3. ^ Alaska (for its master elections only), California, and Washington additionally utilize a nonpartisan coating primary, and Louisiana uses a Louisiana primary, for their corresponding primary elections.
4. ^ Also the Georgia runoff election and the Georgia special runoff election held on January five, 2021.

References

1. ^ "Maine Independent Angus King To Caucus With Senate Democrats". Political leader. November 14, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2020. Angus King of Maine, who cruised to victory terminal week running every bit an independent, said Wednesday that he will conclave with Senate Democrats. [...] The Senate'southward other independent, Bernie Sanders of Vermont, also caucuses with the Democrats.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Constitution of the United States". Senate.gov. March 26, 2009. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
3. ^ Amar, Vik D. (Jan 1, 1988). "The Senate and the Constitution". The Yale Law Journal. 97 (six): 1111–1130. doi:ten.2307/796343. JSTOR 796343. S2CID 53702587.
4. ^ Stewart, Charles; Reynolds, Marker (January 1, 1990). "Television Markets and U.S. Senate Elections". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 15 (4): 495–523. doi:10.2307/439894. JSTOR 439894.
5. ^ Richard L. Berke (September 12, 1999). "In Fight for Command of Congress, Tough Skirmishes Within Parties". The New York Times.
6. ^ Joseph S. Friedman (March 30, 2009). "The Rapid Sequence of Events Forcing the Senate's Hand: A Reappraisal of the Seventeenth Amendment, 1890–1913". Curej – College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal.
7. ^ Lee, Frances Eastward. (June 16, 2006). "Like-minded to Disagree: Agenda Content and Senate Partisanship, 198". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 33 (ii): 199–222. doi:10.3162/036298008784311000.
8. ^ ^{a b} "U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 1". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
9. ^ "Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: senate". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
10. ^ Robert Yates. Notes of the Hush-hush Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787 . Retrieved March 17, 2017.
11. ^ "Not-voting members of Congress". Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
12. ^ "Hawaii becomes 50th state". History.com . Retrieved March 22, 2011.
13. ^ "Political party In Ability – Congress and Presidency – A Visual Guide To The Residual of Power In Congress, 1945–2008". Uspolitics.most.com. Archived from the original on November 1, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
14. ^ Article I, Section three: "The Senate of the U.s. shall be composed of two senators from each country, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; each Senator shall have i vote."
15. ^ ^{a b} "Directly Election of Senators". U.South. Senate official website. Retrieved April 23, 2019.
16. ^ Federalist Papers, No. 62, Library of Congress.
17. ^ 1801–1850, November sixteen, 1818: Youngest Senator. United States Senate. Retrieved Nov 17, 2007.
18. ^ Dates of Sessions of the Congress. United States Senate. Retrieved June 17, 2020.
19. ^ 2 United statesC. § 1
20. ^ Brooks, James (December 14, 2020). "Election audit confirms win for Election Measure out two and Alaska's new ranked-option voting system". Anchorage Daily News . Retrieved January x, 2021.
21. ^ "The Term of A Senator – When Does It Begin and End? – Senate 98-29" (PDF). Us Senate. United States Printing Part. pp. 14–xv. Retrieved November thirteen, 2015.
22. ^ ^{a b c d e} Neale, Thomas H. (April 12, 2018). "U.S. Senate Vacancies: Gimmicky Developments and Perspectives" (PDF). fas.org. Congressional Enquiry Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 5, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. NOTE: wherever nowadays, references to page numbers in superscripts refer to the electronic (.pdf) pagination, not as institute printed on the bottom margin of displayed pages.
23. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Appointment of US Senator". Massachusetts Smashing and General Court.
24. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Engagement of US Senator Shall not be a candidate in special election". Massachusetts Great and Full general Court.
25. ^ ^{a b} "Stevens could keep seat in Senate". Anchorage Daily News. October 28, 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009.
26. ^ United States Constitution, Commodity VI
27. ^ See: five U.Southward.C. § 3331; see also: U.Southward. Senate Oath of Office
28. ^ ^{a b} Salaries. United States Senate. Retrieved October two, 2013.
29. ^ ^{a b c} "US Congress Salaries and Benefits". Usgovinfo.well-nigh.com. Retrieved October 2, 2013.
30. ^ Sean Loughlin and Robert Yoon (June 13, 2003). "Millionaires populate U.S. Senate". CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
31. ^ "Wealth of Congress". Scroll Call . Retrieved November eight, 2018.
32. ^ Baker, Richard A. "Traditions of the United States Senate" (PDF). Page four.
33. ^ "Seating Arrangement". Senate Bedchamber Desks. Retrieved July eleven, 2012.
34. ^ "Senate Chamber Desks – Overview". United States Senate.
35. ^ "Senate Sleeping room Desks – Desk Occupants". United states Senate.
36. ^ "Glossary Term: vice president". senate.gov. Usa Senate. Retrieved November x, 2016.
37. ^ "Glossary Term: president pro tempore". senate.gov. United states of america Senate. Retrieved November x, 2016.
38. ^ Mershon, Erin (August 2011). "Presiding Loses Its Prestige in Senate". Roll Call. rollcall.com. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
39. ^ Martin B. Gold, Senate Procedure and Practise, p.39: Every member, when he speaks, shall address the chair, standing in his identify, and when he has finished, shall sit down.
40. ^ "The Earth's Greatest Deliberative Body". Time. July v, 1993. Archived from the original on Baronial 11, 2009.
41. ^ "World's greatest deliberative body spotter". The Washington Post.
42. ^ "Senate reform: Lazing on a Senate afternoon". The Economist . Retrieved October 4, 2010.
43. ^ Quinton, Jeff. "Thurmond'southward Filibuster". Backcountry Conservative. July 27, 2003. Retrieved June nineteen, 2006.
44. ^ Reconciliation, 2 U.South.C. § 641(due east) (Procedure in the Senate).
45. ^ ^{a b} "How majority rule works in the U.Southward. Senate". Nieman Watchdog. July 31, 2009.
46. ^ "Yea or Nay? Voting in the Senate". Senate.gov. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
47. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Hole-and-corner Sessions of Congress: A Cursory Historical Overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August half-dozen, 2009.
48. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Surreptitious Sessions of the House and Senate" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August half-dozen, 2009.
49. ^ "Calendars & Schedules" via Senate.gov
50. ^ Run into, for examples, American Dictionary of National Biography on John Sherman and Carter Glass; in full general, Ritchie, Congress, p. 209
51. ^ Ritchie, Congress, p. 44. Zelizer, On Capitol Loma describes this process; one of the reforms is that seniority within the majority party can now be bypassed, so that chairs do run the risk of being deposed by their colleagues. Meet in particular p. 17, for the unreformed Congress, and pp.188–9, for the Stevenson reforms of 1977.
52. ^ Ritchie, Congress, pp .44, 175, 209
53. ^ Mark Murray (August two, 2010). "The inefficient Senate". Firstread.msnbc.msn.com. Archived from the original on Baronial 10, 2010. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
54. ^ Packer, George (January vii, 2009). "Filibusters and arcane obstructions in the Senate". The New Yorker . Retrieved October 4, 2010.
55. ^ How Autonomous Is the American Constitution?
56. ^ Sizing Upwards the Senate
57. ^ The Senate: Affirmative Action for White People
58. ^ "Constitution of the United States". Senate.gov. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
59. ^ Saturno, James. "The Origination Clause of the U.Southward. Constitution: Interpretation and Enforcement", CRS Report for Congress (Mar-15-2011).
60. ^ Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United States Senate, p. 188 (Taylor & Francis 2004).
61. ^ Woodrow Wilson wrote that the Senate has extremely wide amendment authority with regard to appropriations bills, equally distinguished from bills that levy taxes. See Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics, pp. 155–156 (Transaction Publishers 2002).
62. ^ According to the Library of Congress, the Constitution provides the origination requirement for acquirement bills, whereas tradition provides the origination requirement for appropriation bills. See Sullivan, John. "How Our Laws Are Made Archived October xvi, 2015, at the Wayback Machine", Library of Congress (accessed August 26, 2013).
63. ^ Sargent, Noel. "Bills for Raising Revenue Under the Federal and State Constitutions", Minnesota Police force Review, Vol. 4, p. 330 (1919).
64. ^ Wilson Congressional Government, Chapter Iii: "Revenue and Supply". Text common to all printings or "editions"; in Papers of Woodrow Wilson information technology is Vol.4 (1968), p.91; for unchanged text, see p. 13, ibid.
65. ^ King, Elizabeth. "This Is What Happened Concluding Time a Cabinet Nomination Was Rejected". time.com. Time USA, LLC. Retrieved April 11, 2020.
66. ^ Recess Appointments FAQ (PDF). Usa Senate, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved November 20, 2007
67. ^ Ritchie, Congress p. 178.
68. ^ Bolton, John R. (January v, 2009). "Restore the Senate'southward Treaty Ability". The New York Times.
69. ^ For an example, and a discussion of the literature, see Laurence Tribe, "Taking Text and Structure Seriously: Reflections on Gratis-Form Method in Constitutional Interpretation", Harvard Police Review, Vol. 108, No. 6. (Apr 1995), pp. 1221–1303.
70. ^ Complete list of impeachment trials. Archived December viii, 2010, at WebCite Usa Senate. Retrieved November 20, 2007

Bibliography

• Bakery, Richard A. The Senate of the Usa: A Bicentennial History Krieger, 1988.
• Baker, Richard A., ed., First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century Congressional Quarterly, 1991.
• Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every two years
• David West. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins. Party, Procedure, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
• Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson. Vol. 3: Chief of the Senate. Knopf, 2002.
• Comiskey, Michael. Seeking Justices: The Judging of Supreme Courtroom Nominees U. Press of Kansas, 2004.
• Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation XII: 2005–2008: Politics and Policy in the 109th and 110th Congresses (2010); massive, highly detailed summary of Congressional activity, equally well equally major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the annual CQ almanac. The Congress and the Nation 2009–2012 vol Thirteen has been announced for September 2014 publication.
  • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004 (2005);
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
  • Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the first of the series
• Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Middle of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. Cambridge U. Press, 2001.
• Davidson, Roger H., and Walter J. Oleszek, eds. (1998). Congress and Its Members, 6th ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly. (Legislative process, breezy practices, and member data)
• Gould, Lewis L. The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern United States Senate (2005)
• Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Graphic symbol: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990 Sharpe, 1997.
• Hoebeke, C. H. The Route to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Subpoena. Transaction Books, 1995. (Popular elections of senators)
• Lee, Frances E. and Oppenheimer, Bruce I. Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation. U. of Chicago Press 1999. 304 pp.
• MacNeil, Neil and Richard A. Baker. The American Senate: An Insider's History. Oxford University Printing, 2013. 455 pp.
• McFarland, Ernest West. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995 (Democratic bulk leader 1950–52)
• Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. Susquehanna U. Press 2000
• Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Harcourt Brace, 1996
• Ritchie, Donald A. (1991). Printing Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. Harvard University Press.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2001). The Congress of the United States: A Pupil Companion (2d ed.). Oxford University Printing.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2010). The U.S. Congress: A Very Brusque Introduction. Oxford University Press.
• Rothman, David. Politics and Ability the Us Senate 1869–1901 (1966)
• Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Alter in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996
• Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Unlike Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 Sharpe, 1999 (Senate Autonomous leader)
• VanBeek, Stephen D. Post-Passage Politics: Bicameral Resolution in Congress. U. of Pittsburgh Press 1995
• Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Always a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Printing, 1998. (Arkansas Democrat who was Majority leader in 1930s)
• Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1885; also 15th ed. 1900, repr. past photoreprint, Transaction books, 2002.
• Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the U.s.a. Senate Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2004. (Early on history)
• Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill : The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006)
• Zelizer, Julian E., ed. The American Congress: The Building of Commonwealth (2004) (overview)

Official Senate histories

• Biographical Directory of the Usa Congress, 1774–1989

The following are published by the Senate Historical Office.

• Robert Byrd. The Senate, 1789–1989. Four volumes.
  • Vol. I, a chronological series of addresses on the history of the Senate
  • Vol. II, a topical series of addresses on various aspects of the Senate's performance and powers
  • Vol. III, Archetype Speeches, 1830–1993
  • Vol. IV, Historical Statistics, 1789–1992
• Dole, Bob. Historical Almanac of the United States Senate
• Hatfield, Marker O., with the Senate Historical Office. Vice Presidents of the The states, 1789–1993 (essays reprinted online)
• Frumin, Alan S. Riddick's Senate Process. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992.

External links

This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated four August 2006 (2006-08-04), and does non reflect subsequent edits.

• The United states of america Senate Official Website
  • Sortable contact data
  • Senate Chamber Map
  • Standing Rules of the Senate
  • Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774 to Nowadays
• Listing of Senators who died in office, via PoliticalGraveyard.com
• Chart of all U.Southward. Senate seat-holders, past state, 1978–present, via Texas Tech University
• A New Nation Votes: American Ballot Returns 1787–1825 Archived July 25, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, via Tufts Academy
• Nib Hammons' American Politics Guide – Members of Congress past Commission and State with Partisan Voting Index Archived Dec 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
• Works by or about United states of america Senate at Internet Annal
• Get-go U.Southward. Senate session aired by C-SPAN via C-Bridge
• Senate Transmission via govinfo.gov (U.Southward. Government Publishing Office)
• United states of america Senate Calendars and Schedules
• Data most U.South. Bills and Resolutions Archived January two, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
• Works by Us Senate at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

What Is The Size Of The Senate And How Many Senators Does Each State Get In Congress?,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate

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